This article contains 9.070 words.

Everyone has a ‘morning ritual’ that may be more or less like this—and not necessarily in this order:

Wake up, stretch, stare into space for a while, get up, fart, get dressed, open the windows/make the bed, go to the bathroom while the water for coffee is heating up, pee, wash your face/brush your teeth, look in the mirror... at this last part, perhaps some of us think something like: ‘Good morning, me!’. How beautiful is morning poetry!

It would be a shame if I ruined it by saying that this ‘me’ may just be a biological lie you tell yourself every morning... Yes, dear ones, welcome to the world of neural plasticity and the illusion of the ‘self’ - a concept as comforting as covering yourself with a wet duvet in winter.

In this essay - because calling this an ‘article’ would be blasphemous and an offence to the many coffees, research and studies involved - we will talk a little about existential consciousness, identity and the malleability of what we insist on calling ‘I’.

Is this ‘I’ a solid entity or just an emotional hologram created by our brain so we don't freak out? This simple little question, so innocent and harmless, has caused many people to lose sleep (including me), their hair and, in some cases, their lives.

For a better understanding, I will cite the different lines of thought of some historical figures. This ‘list’ presents the names that the author deemed most relevant, so it follows that some big names have been left out.

The information is organised into main topics, which means that what you read is a ‘digested’ version of the content. However, if you want to delve deeper, I strongly recommend that you read the related works and draw your own conclusions.

In addition, the approximate chronological order is in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, even though the events did not occur during its validity, as it was only introduced in 1582.

Unfortunately, the author did not have access to the Vatican Library, so we will have to settle for the ‘official data available to the general public,’ which is still not 100% reliable.

WARNING: If you are the type of person who does not like to read, think, and question, I am sorry to inform you that you are in the right place. Go for it!

 

Unified Chronological Line of the Genesis of the ‘Self’

 

East & West

 

Antiquity (1500 BC - 500 AD)

 

Upanishads/Vedāntas (India, approx. 800-300 BC) - Various authors, including Rishis (sages, seers), spiritual masters and Vedic schools. Related works: ‘Brihadaranyaka’, ‘Chandogya’, etc.

• The true ‘self,’ called Atman, is united with absolute reality, called Brahman.
• Self-knowledge and asceticism (rigorous practices of self-discipline) are means for the ‘self’ to discover itself.
• The veil of illusion (Māyā) hides the essence of the real self.
  

 

Lao-Tzu (China, 6th century BC) - Philosopher, writer and founder of Taoism. Related work: ‘Tao Te Ching’.

• Identity is not rigid, but detached and flows in harmony with the Tao (the universal principle, the Whole).
• The ‘self’ is something to be transcended and not nurtured.
• He proposes disidentification with the ego in favour of a more natural and less painful life.
  

 

Socrates (Greece, 469-399 BC) - Philosopher. He left no writings, his teachings were reproduced by his disciple Plato.

• ‘Nosce te ipsum/Know thyself’ is the ethical and philosophical principle; he used Socratic maieutics (‘childbirth of ideas’) or the Socratic method.
• The true ‘self’ is the soul (psyche) that resides in reason, morality and knowledge, where the mission is the search for truth.
• Self-knowledge leads to virtue (areté), therefore, here virtue and knowledge are synonymous.

 

Diotima of Mantinea (Greece, 5th century BC) - Philosopher and Priestess. She left no writings, but appears in Plato's ‘The Banquet’.

• The ‘self’ seeks knowledge and beauty through love.
• The soul desires immortality, transcending the body for the love of knowledge.
• She emphasises inner transformation as a process of spiritual ascension.

 

Confucius (China, 551-479 BC) - Philosopher and Thinker. Related work: ‘The Analects’.

• The ‘self’ is not isolated, but formed and perfected in social and family relationships.
• The ethical ‘self’ is built through the cultivation of virtue and duty towards others.
• Its pillars are: Constant self-improvement, Ren (humanity, moral essence...), Li (following rituals and customs...) and Relationships with others.

 

Siddhartha Gautama, the Buddha (Nepal, c. 563-483 BC) - ‘Former Prince’, spiritual master and founder of Buddhism. Related works: ‘Dhammapada’ and ‘Sutras’.

• There is no fixed or essential ‘I’; what we call ‘I’ is just a set of physical and mental processes that are constantly changing (Annatta).
• Impermanence (Anicca), everything is in motion, clinging to ego ideas is the cause of suffering (dukkha).
• Liberation comes from detachment from the ‘self’ and overcoming the illusion of separation, thus achieving nirvana (a state of supreme peace and liberation from the cycle of rebirth known as Saṃsāra).

 

Plato (Greece, 427-347 BC) - Philosopher and mathematician, disciple of Socrates. Related works: ‘Phaedo’, ‘The Republic’ and ‘The Banquet’.

• The soul (psyche) is divided into three parts: the rational (reason), the irascible (will) and the concupiscent (desire).
• The true ‘I’ is the rational soul that governs the other parts and seeks knowledge about eternal forms/ideas (Justice, Beauty, Goodness...).
• The body is only the prison of the soul.

 

Zhuangzi or Master Zhuang (China, 4th century BC) - Taoist philosopher. Related work: ‘Zhuangzi’.

• The ‘self’ is changeable and fluid, it transforms, there is no separation between the ‘self’ and the world.
• The rigidity of the ego is the source of illusions and suffering.
• True wisdom is only achieved through detachment from the idea of ‘self’. By letting go of the ego, the ‘self’ becomes attuned to the universe.
  

 

Aristotle (Greece, 384-322 BC) - Philosopher and polymath, disciple of Plato and tutor to Alexander the Great. Related works: ‘Nicomachean Ethics’ and ‘Metaphysics’.

• The soul (psyche) is ‘materialised’ in the body, that is, the soul and the body are one.
• The ‘self’ is defined by rational capacity and the potential to achieve eudaimonia (complete happiness).
• Self-knowledge is important, but it is the realisation of practical everyday virtues that truly builds the ‘self’.
  

 

Vyasa (India, c. 5th-2nd century BC) - Mythical sage traditionally credited with compiling the epic ‘Mahabharata,’ of which the Bhagavad Gita is a part (Book VI: Brishma Parva). - PS: if you want to get an idea of the Bhagavad Gita but with a ‘Westernised’ version, watch the film ‘The Legend of Bagger Vance’ written by Steven Pressfield.

• What we think is the ‘self’ (body, mind and ego) is nothing more than Māyā, a temporary illusion.
• The true ‘I’ is one with Brahman (the absolute Whole).
• In the Gita, Krishna (divine avatar) teaches Arjuna (warrior prince) that the path of the liberated ‘I’ is to act in the world, but with detachment from the fruits of action.

 

Augustine of Hippo (Rome, 354-430 AD) - Philosopher and Theologian. Related work: ‘Confessions’.

• The ‘I’ only finds its true nature by turning inward, seeking God as the centre of the soul.
• Human beings are marked by original sin and inclined to error and pride. Divine grace redeems the ‘ego-self’ and restores its relationship with God.
• Self-knowledge leads to knowledge of God. The inner journey is also a spiritual journey.

 

 Middle Ages (500 AD - 1500 AD)

 

Adi Shankara or Vendanta (India, 8th century) - Metaphysician, Theologian, Wandering Monk and Spiritual Master. Related work: ‘Brahma Sutra Bhashya’.

• Everything is One Being, eternal, infinite. The ego (ahamkāra) is illusion (Māyā) - the ‘I’ is pure consciousness.
• Through self-knowledge, meditation and the study of scriptures, the seeker realises that: ‘I am not the body, nor the mind. I am Brahman.’ This is liberation (moksha).
• Believing that we are the ego is ignorance (avidyā).
  

 

Padmasambhava or Guru Rinpoche (Tibet, 8th century) - The Buddha of Tibet and founder of the Tibetan (or tantric) school of Buddhism. Related work: ‘Bardo Thödol’.

• There is no fixed ‘I’ to be found, only mental conditioning, that is, the ‘I’ is nothing more than an illusion created by the mind.
• Direct experiences bring realisation, not thoughts.
• The true ‘I’ is not something physical or any kind of identity, but pure consciousness that has no concepts. The ‘enlightened’ mind is clear, awake and present in everyone, but in the ‘background’, obscured.
  

 

Hildegard von Bingen or Sibyl of the Rhine (Germany, 1098-1179) - Polymath and Nun. Related work: ‘Scivias’.

• Women as mystical and creative subjects and the ‘self’ as the dwelling place of divine revelation.
• The ‘self’ finds its meaning when in harmony with the body, the soul and the cosmos.
• Self-knowledge is the path to inner healing and union with the divine.

 

Thomas Aquinas (Italy, 1225-1274) - Friar. Related work: ‘Summa Theologica’.

• He followed Aristotle's idea, seeing the human being as a unity between body (matter) and soul (form).
• The ‘I’ has absolute value, the ability to know the truth and choose good because it was created in the image and likeness of God (imago Dei).
• The end of the human being is the beatific vision, to contemplate the face of God. The ‘I’ is fulfilled when it achieves this cause and end, that is, to reach and contemplate God through grace, reason and virtue.
  

 

Dōgen Zenji or Dogen (Japan, 1200-1253) - Zen Buddhist master, philosopher and founder of the Soto School (of Zen). Related work: ‘Shōbōgenzō’.

• ‘To study the Way is to study the self. To study the self is to forget the self. To forget the self is to be enlightened by all things.’ In other words, when we immerse ourselves deeply in the practice of zazen (sitting meditation), what we call ‘I’ disappears and we become one with reality as it truly is.
• The ‘self’ manifests itself in the present moment, it arises in every breath, in every gesture and in every moment of zazen. It is not something to be found, but rather experienced.
• It echoes the Buddhist teachings of non-self.

 

Teresa of Ávila (Spain, 1515-1582) - Mystic and Philosopher. Relevant work: ‘The Interior Castle’.

• The soul is like a castle with many rooms.
• Self-knowledge is a spiritual path where experience is subjective and deeply introspective, leading to union with the divine.
• The ‘I’ is the ‘inner dwelling’ where God is found.

 

Renaissance and Enlightenment (1500 AD - 1800 AD)

 

Michel de Montaigne (France, 1533-1592) - Philosopher, erudite writer, humanist and sceptic considered the precursor of the essayistic literary style. Related work: ‘Essays’.

• ‘What do I know?’ (Que sais-je?) - a phrase he used frequently, recognising the fluidity and uncertainty of the ‘self’. Change is natural and contradiction is part of human nature, because the ‘self’ is unstable and human beings are like a patchwork quilt of emotions, experiences and changes.
• The ‘I’ seeks wisdom through doubt and not through ignorant certainties. Balance, tolerance and individual freedom are what define the ‘I’.
• Self-knowledge is seeking to know the ‘I’ through observation and sincere reflection on lived experiences and not through dogma.
  

 

René Descartes (France, 1596-1650) - Mathematician, Physicist and Philosopher. Related work: ‘Meditations on First Philosophy’.

• ‘Cogito, ergo sum./I think, therefore I am.’ Even if everything is deceptive, the fact of doubting would already be proof that there is an ‘I’ that thinks.
• Concept of ‘I’ as a thinking substance (res cogitans) separate from the body (res extensa) and where the certainty of this ‘I’ would be the basis of all knowledge.
• Rationality is the basis of real knowledge and modern philosophy. Therefore, self-knowledge happens through the ‘I’ that finds its truth through clear and distinct reason.
  

 

John Locke (England, 1632-1704) - Philosopher, creator of Liberalism, one of the fathers of empiricism and theorist of contractualism (a set of theories that seek to explain the ‘whys’ of the formation of states and the maintenance of social order). Related work: ‘An Essay Concerning Humane Understanding’.

• A more psychological and empirical view, far from mysticism and rationalism. The ‘I’ as a continuous and changeable consciousness that accompanies thoughts over time.
• The ‘I’-identity as directly dependent on memory. This means that when we remember a past action, it means that we were the ones who did it. If memory is broken, so is identity.
• When we are born, we are like a blank canvas; everything that makes us who we are comes later.
  

 

David Hume (Scotland, 1711-1776) - Historian, philosopher, essayist, known for his philosophical scepticism and extreme empiricism. Related work: ‘A Treatise of Human Nature’.

• There is no continuous, substantial or fixed ‘I’. When introspective, all he found were perceptions, torrents of experiences.
• Identity is a useful fiction, created to give cohesion to consciousness. The ‘I’ is the result of memory and the association of ideas.
• A metaphor for the theatre of the mind, where perceptions enter and exit the stage, but there is no main actor.
  

 

Immanuel Kant (Germany, 1724-1804) - Philosopher and one of the leading figures of the Enlightenment. Related work: ‘Critique of Pure Reason’.

• The transcendental ‘I’ is the condition for knowledge; we do not know it, but it is what organises our experience in the world. Therefore, the ‘I’ is not the object of experience, but what makes experience possible.
• The ‘I’ that we observe in ourselves (thoughts, feelings, history...) would be the ‘empirical self’ subject to time and change.
• The ‘I’ as an autonomous, rational and free moral subject. It acts according to reason in a practical way and obeys the inner moral law. This ‘I’ is responsible and liberating, regardless of whether this freedom is empirically proven or not.
  

 

Mary Wollstonecraft (England, 1759-1797) - Enlightenment philosopher, writer and defender of women's rights, considered a precursor of feminist philosophy. Related work: ‘A Vindication of the Rights of Women’.

• The ‘self’ is rational and dignified, moral and capable of self-determination, regardless of gender. Therefore, self-knowledge is a right and a duty of all rational beings (without exception).
• The formation of the ‘self’ is directly dependent on education, as it is not born ready, but is constructed through instruction, reflection and the exercise of reason.
• The goal of human life is rational freedom and virtue, for this is how the ‘self’ is realised.

 

19th century – Romanticism, Nihilism, Psychoanalysis

 

Friedrich Nietzsche (Germany, 1844–1900) – Philosopher, critic of traditional morality, philologist, poet and composer. Related work: ‘Thus Spoke Zarathustra’.

• There are multiple ‘selves,’ like a constellation of conflicting impulses, desires, and forces. ‘The self is a grammatical fiction,’ he said.
• The moral ‘self’ is an artificial construct that represses the will to power (the creative, instinctive, individual force that is the essence of life).
• The ‘I’ is something to be overcome. The ideal would be the beyond-man (Übermensch), the one who creates himself as a work of art.

 

Sigmund Freud (Austria, 1856-1939) - Neurologist, Psychoanalyst, recognised as the founder of Psychoanalysis (Psychoanalytic Psychology). Related work: ‘The Ego and the Id’.

• The ‘ego’ is only a part of the psyche that mediates between the Id (impulses, unconscious instincts) and the demands of the superego (internalised moral norms).
• A large part of the ‘ego’ is unconscious, and what we think we are (our conscious thoughts) is only the tip of the iceberg. This ‘ego’ is heavily influenced by unconscious desires, repressed traumas, and childhood fantasies - all of which escape rational control.
• The development of the ‘self’ occurs through psychosexual conflicts, repression, and defence mechanisms. Let's say it is a wounded, fragmented ‘self’ in constant negotiation between pleasure, repression, and reality.

 

Carl Gustav Jung (Switzerland, 1875-1961) - Psychiatrist, Psychotherapist, and founder of Analytical Psychology. Related work: ‘Psychological Types’.

• The ‘ego’ is the conscious part of the psyche and is responsible for personal identity, decisions and the sense of ‘I am’. But it is only part of the ‘Self’, which represents the totality of the psyche, including the unconscious.
• The real ‘I’ is the Self, which includes the collective unconscious. The Self would be the centre of the totality of the psyche (conscious plus unconscious) and would include universal archetypes (the Shadow, the Hero, the Sage...), which shape the individual's experience in a profound and symbolic way.
• The complete ‘self’ is the one that goes through the process of individuation, that is, the ‘self’ that has become aware of itself in its depth, which has embraced its light and its shadow.
  

 

John Broadus Watson (USA, 1878-1958) - Psychologist, considered the founder of Behavioural Psychology (Behaviourism), which was later expanded by names such as B.F. Skinner and Ivan Pavlov. Related work: ‘Behaviourism’.

• The ‘self’ is a set of behavioural responses that have been learned throughout life, so the focus is directly on what can be observed and measured, not on internal states. Introspection is totally rejected as a scientific method; the ‘self’ is not a mental or subjective essence.
• ‘Give me a dozen healthy children... and I will mould them into any type of specialist.’ - Watson's statement shows that, in his view, the ‘self’ is the result of the environment and learning, therefore it is a product of the environment, which can be moulded through stimulus and response, without any need to resort to the mind or soul.
• Watson completely breaks with philosophical traditions that sought to understand the ‘self’ through introspection, the soul, or consciousness. He argued that such concepts are unscientific and useless to psychology as an objective science.

 

20th century - Phenomenology, Existentialism, Post-structuralism

 

 Edmund Gustav Albrecht Husserl (Germany, 1859-1938) - Mathematician, philosopher and founder of the Phenomenology School. Related works: ‘Logical Investigations’.

• The ‘I’ (transcendental ego) is pure consciousness, it is that which intends, which is always focused on something. This ‘transcendental I’ would be the subject that originates in all experience and knowledge and is the basis of the world as a phenomenon.
• ‘All consciousness is consciousness of something.’ The ‘I’ does not exist in isolation, consciousness is intentional and the ‘I’ takes shape through experiences (Erlebnisse).
• Self-knowledge requires epoché, that is, the suspension of all beliefs about the external world and a focus on the immediate experience of consciousness, the here and now.
  

 

Martin Heidegger (Germany, 1889-1976) - Professor, philosopher, writer and university rector. Related work: ‘Being and Time’.

• Human beings are Dasein - which literally means ‘being-there’ - the ‘I’ is a being that exists in the world in a situated, non-fixed way, which is open to being and which understands itself through existence.
• When confronted with finitude and death, this Dasein can awaken to its authentic existence and recognise that it must choose itself with freedom and responsibility.
• Human beings are always in the process of becoming, that is, the ‘I’ is an existential project, an eternal becoming, which is constructed from lived possibilities. There is no ready-made essence, only a way of being that unfolds over time.
  

 

Viktor Frankl (Austria, 1905-1997) - Neuropsychiatrist and founder of Logotherapy and Existential Analysis. Related work: ‘Man's Search for Meaning’.

• The human ‘I’ is realised when it finds a purpose that transcends it, even in the midst of suffering or especially when in this condition. Therefore, the core of human existence is not the will to pleasure (Freud) or the will to power (Adler).
• The centre of the dignity of the ‘self’ is inner freedom, that is, although we cannot control everything that happens to us, we will always have the freedom to choose our attitude.
• The meaning of life is not given to us, but rather discovered by us, and when this occurs, the ‘self’ is called upon to respond ethically to its existence.
  

 

Jean-Paul Sartre (France, 1905-1980) - Writer, philosopher and critic. Related work: ‘Being and Nothingness’.

• ‘Existence precedes essence.’ - The ‘self’ has no prior essence, it constructs it freely. This means that human beings first exist and then define themselves. The ‘I’ is not given by God, nature or culture, it is something that each person creates through their own choices and actions.
• ‘We are condemned to freedom.’ - The ‘I’ is 100% free, and this can also be a burden, as there is no hiding place from external destiny or a fixed role. There are no metaphysical excuses, the ‘I’ is totally responsible for itself.
• The authentic ‘I’ is the one who assumes their freedom, thus creating their own meaning, even in a universe where there are no guarantees. The individual may even pretend to have no choice, only a ‘social role’, fleeing from freedom, and this would be living in bad faith (mauvaise foi).
  

 

Simone Lucie-Ernestine-Marie Bertrand de Beauvoir (France, 1908-1986) - Intellectual, writer, political activist, feminist, social theorist and existentialist philosopher. Related work: ‘The Second Sex’.

• She shared Sartre's view, but added that freedom is always situated, meaning that this freedom is conditioned by the body, history, gender and culture.
• Women are often treated as ‘the other’ of men, deprived of the possibility of being fully autonomous subjects (or ‘I’). The female ‘I’ is therefore socially moulded, restricted and alienated, but can and must fight and win its freedom.
• The construction of the ‘I’ is linked to the ethics of freedom and solidarity, since authenticity requires engagement and responsibility. The true ‘I’ is realised in the world, in relation to others. Affirming one's own freedom, as well as that of others, is the authentic way of living.
  

 

Hannah Arendt (Germany, 1906-1975) - Political philosopher. Related work: ‘The Human Condition’.

• It is in the encounter with plurality that the ‘self’ manifests itself as unique and unrepeatable. The ‘self’ is not a hidden inner essence, it is something that manifests itself in the world and especially through action and speech to others.
• One of the main concepts here is that of natality, that is, the capacity that human beings have to initiate something new. When the ‘I’ acts freely, it opens up new paths in the world.
• The ‘I’ is not only individual; to be truly human is to act, think and respond to the world in which one lives. The absence of thought and responsibility (as in the case of totalitarian regimes and the ‘banality of evil’ that occurs in them) destroys the ‘I’ and its dignity.
  

 

Paul-Michel Foucault (France, 1926-1984) - Historian of ideas, social theorist, philologist, literary critic, professor and philosopher. His ideas are part of postmodern psychology. Related works: ‘The History of Sexuality’ and ‘Discipline and Punish’.

• The ‘self’ is a historical and social construct, where the modern subject was ‘produced’ by knowledge such as psychology, medicine, prison and pedagogy - that is, we are shaped by external and historical forces (narratives).
• The ‘self’ is, in large part, an effect of the power that acts on the mind and body. We are subjects created and disciplined by systems of surveillance, categories and norms, and we can be labelled as ‘crazy’, ‘criminal’, ‘abnormal’, etc. when we do not allow ourselves to be shaped by power-knowledge.
• Inspired by the ancient Greeks, Foucault suggested consciously recreating ourselves, like a work of art, challenging imposed norms and reinventing our subjectivity. This reinvention of the self was called epimeleia heautou.

 

Gilles Deleuze (France, 1925-1995) - Philosopher. Related work: ‘A Thousand Plateaus’.

• ‘The self is what says “I”, but it is not what thinks.’ In other words, thought does not come from the ‘I’, but from impersonal and pre-individual forces. The ‘I’ is not the origin, but rather the effect, as well as a useful fiction that organises the multiplicity of psychic life.
• The subject is multiple and in constant transformation, a continuous becoming, not an identity.
• She proposed the ‘desterriolization of the self,’ which means breaking with fixed identities, structures, and oppressive norms. Freedom lies in the creation of the self as an open process, a self-sculpting in motion and without any previous model.

 

Donna Haraway (USA, 1944-…) - Zoologist, Professor, and Philosopher. Related work: ‘A Cyborg Manifesto’.

• The ‘self’ is hybrid, constructed on the boundaries between human, machine, animal, nature and culture. As such, the ‘self’ is neither natural nor pure, but rather a mixture, a network, a flow.
• The ‘self’ is a living interface, shaped by technical and symbolic systems that are embedded in networks of technology, power and biology. It is formed at the intersections of gender, science, race, technology and biopolitics.
• The ‘self’ is not a sovereign subject, but rather a node of responsive relationships that must act with care in the world.
  

 

Gloria Jean Watkins/bell hooks (USA, 1952-2021) - Author, feminist theorist, artist, anti-racist activist and teacher. Related work: ‘Ain’t I a Woman?’.

• The ‘I’ cannot be understood in isolation or in an abstract way, as identity is constructed from concrete experiences lived in contexts of oppression and resistance. Therefore, it is forged at the intersection of race, class, gender, and oppression.
• The subject is capable of reinventing themselves, empowering themselves, and positioning themselves critically in the world. It is a space of resistance and transformation, regardless of whether it is marked by structures of domination.
• The ‘I’ is formed and strengthened through emotional bonds, care and solidarity with others. Love breaks the cycle of domination and allows the construction of a whole and communal self.

 

 Contemporary Psychology (1950-present)

 

Social Psychology (1930s/1940s) - although its roots date back to an earlier period, this branch of psychology only became a formally established field in the 1930s. Two of the leading figures in this field are Kurt Lewin and Leon Festinger. They explored how groups and society influence individual behaviour and attitudes. Related works: ‘Field Theory in Social Science’ and ‘A Theory Of Cognitive Dissonance’.

• Lewin saw the ‘self’ as something not isolated, but part of a ‘psychological field’, which is a dynamic space where there is constant interaction between the individual and the environment. B=f(P,E) - Behaviour is a function of the Person and the Environment. Within this question, the ‘self’ would be the point of tension between external forces and internal needs, where it is never something fixed or separate from the context.
• For Festinger, the ‘self’ was a structure that revolved around the search for internal consistency. His theory of Cognitive Dissonance became famous for this. In the conflict between our beliefs, attitudes and actions, the ‘self’ becomes uncomfortable and tends to change in order to restore harmony. Therefore, this ‘self’ would be the agent that reorganises thoughts and attitudes to maintain a coherent internal narrative.
• Thus, both Lewis and Festinger had a vision of a dynamic ‘self’ in constant adjustment. Not as a fixed entity, but something that changes according to social and internal challenges. The subject would be active, adapting, responding and reorganising their mental field in order to maintain personal and social balance.
  

 

Neuropsychology (1940s/1950s) - In the post-World War II period, it established itself as a separate field, emerging as an interdisciplinary field involving psychology and neuroscience. With the contribution of Alexander Luria and others, the relationship between brain functions and behaviour was explored, especially in cases of brain damage. Related work: ‘Fundamentals of Neuropsychology’.

• The ‘self’ (consciousness, personal identity), for Luria, was a product of complex and integrated brain activities. It emerged from the coordination between perception, language, memory, emotion and action. This occurred because our brain functions through interconnected functional systems and not in isolated areas. Thus, the ‘self’ was considered by Luria to be neurofunctional (the active organisation of higher brain functions).
• Luria saw the formation of the ‘self’ as inseparable from culture, language and social experiences in general. The higher functions that would structure the ‘self’ (abstract thought and self-awareness) would be socially constructed and internalised in the developing brain.
• Information was pointed out that damage to different areas of the brain could affect the perception of the ‘self’ in specific ways - loss of memory, planning ability and language, for example. This would reinforce the idea that the ‘self’ is not a single centre, but rather a complex functional network, which, depending on the area of the brain affected, can be disrupted in different ways.
  

 

Cognitive Psychology (1950s) - post-World War II, focusing on the study of internal mental processes (perception, memory, reasoning, language). Jean Piaget, Lev Vygotsky and others were the first to initiate the transition from behaviourism, which dominated the psychological scene at the time, to cognitivism, making it one of the most influential currents of the decade. Related works: ‘The Psychology of the Child’ and ‘The Social Formation of the Mind’.

• Piaget saw the ‘self’ as something to be constructed throughout cognitive development (through learning). Children construct the ‘self’ progressively and through stages in their development (sensory-motor, pre-operational, etc.). This ‘self’ would then emerge as children begin to coordinate their actions, constructing the notion of identity, permanence and perspective of others.
• For Vygotsky, the ‘self’ is born through cultural and social mediation, especially through language. Formation, therefore, occurs through a relational cultural process, where self-awareness emerges as the individual internalises social interactions. Thus, the entire structure of the formation of the ‘self’ does not depend solely on biological or individual factors.
• Piaget saw the healthy ‘self’ as one that achieves intellectual and moral autonomy, overcoming childish egocentrism through interaction with the physical and social world. Vygotsky, on the other hand, said that the ‘self’ developed better when guided by someone more experienced in a dialogical process, therefore the ‘self’ would be inseparable from the ‘zone of proximal development.’
  

 

Systemic Psychology (1950s) - emerged from the work of Murray Bowen and Salvador Minuchin. It incorporates elements of family theory and therapy, focusing on patterns of interaction and relationships within family or group systems and how they can affect individual behaviour. Related works: ‘Family Therapy in Clinical Practice’ and ‘Families and Family Therapy’.

• Bowen saw the ‘self’ not as individual, but as interdependent - formed through patterns of emotional relationships, especially in the family system of origin. A more differentiated ‘self’ would be able to think and act freely, without being dominated by the emotional pressures of the group. Murray called this ability to maintain emotional autonomy ‘self-differentiation’.
• For Minuchin, the ‘self’ is in fact shaped by the family structure, with its implicit rules, boundaries and subsystems (parents, children, etc.). Emotional problems arise as a result of rigid, confusing and/or dysfunctional structures, which prevent the flexible development of the ‘self’. Our personal identity is shaped according to the position we occupy within our family system of origin.
• Both Bowen and Minuchin emphasised that a healthy ‘self’ is one that can be connected and even intimate with others, but without losing its individuality. The development of the ‘self’ comes from a dynamic balance between belonging and autonomy within emotional systems.
  

 

Humanistic Psychology (1950s/1960s) - emerged as a kind of reaction against behaviourism and psychoanalysis. It began to focus on human potential, growth and self-actualisation. Its most influential figures were Abraham H. Maslow and Carl R. Rogers. Related works: ‘Motivation and Personality’ and ‘On Becoming A Person’.

• Both Maslow and Rogers claim that: The ‘self’ has an innate tendency towards self-actualisation, which in this case means the full expression of its potential. Therefore, the ‘self’ is not just biological data or a social reflex, it is a living, moving structure that seeks coherence, growth and authenticity (even if illusory).
• Maslow said that the ‘self’ seeks growth, creativity, autonomy and transcendence - issues that would be at the top of his pyramid, right after the satisfaction of basic needs. For Rogers, the ‘self’ only develops when it receives unconditional positive acceptance, which allows the subject to integrate their ‘real self’ (who they really are) with their ‘ideal self’ (who they would like to be).
• Maslow and Rogers value genuine relationships, living fully in the present, authenticity, and commitment to human values. Human beings are in a continuous process of self-exploration, openness, and existential responsibility. All this to become who they truly are.
  

 

Cognitive-Behavioural Psychology, or CBT (1960s/1970s) - consolidated itself during this period as an integrated approach, founded and developed by Albert Ellis and Aaron Beck. They combined the approaches of cognitivism (perception and thought) with behavioural techniques and thus helped to treat psychological disorders with changes in behaviour and thought patterns. Related works: ‘ Feeling Better, Getting Better, Staying Better’ and ‘Cognitive Therapy and Emocional Disorders’.

• For Ellis and Beck, the ‘self’ is not defined by external events, but rather by the interpretation we make of them. Thoughts and beliefs shape how people see themselves and how they experience the world.
• Ellis says that much psychological suffering stems from irrational beliefs such as: ‘I must please everyone’ or ‘Everything must be perfect.’ Beck has shown that depression, anxiety and other disorders originate in negative cognitive schemas - distorted patterns of thinking about the self, others, the world, the future...
• For both, the goal of therapy would be to help individuals identify, challenge, and change these dysfunctional beliefs. A healthier ‘self’ is one that thinks in a more realistic, flexible, and constructive way, which would consequently better regulate their emotions and actions.
  

 

Health Psychology (1970s/1980s) - emerged with a focus on the impact that psychological factors have on physical health. This branch addresses and explores issues such as stress, mental health and physical illness. Important figures in this field are Susan Folkman and Richard Lazarus. Related work: ‘ Stress, Appraisal, and Coping’.

• For both, the ‘self’ is directly affected by the way the individual perceives and deals with stress. They propose that stress results from a discrepancy between the demands of the environment and the individual's resources.
• Coping theory suggests that the ‘self’ is not passive in the face of stress, that it can use coping strategies to deal with challenging situations. According to this theory, there are two types of coping: one is problem-focused (seeking to resolve the cause of stress) and the other is emotion-focused (seeking to deal with the emotions caused by stress). The adaptive use of these strategies would strengthen the ‘self.’
• Constant and poorly managed stress can weaken the ‘self,’ as it develops through the ability to adapt and find a balance between challenges and resources. Mental and emotional health is closely linked to the ‘self's’ ability to perceive and respond to stressors effectively.
  

 

Evolutionary Psychology (1980s) - was directly influenced by Charles Darwin and began to consolidate based on the ideas of figures such as Leda Cosmides and John Tooby. Both proposed that human behaviour could be better understood as evolutionary adaptations, which would be influenced by natural selection throughout evolution. Related work: ‘The Adapted Mind: Evolutionary Psychology and Generation of Culture’.

• The ‘self’ is not just a product of culture or individual experiences, it is the result of evolutionary adaptations that have allowed humans to survive and reproduce. This ‘self’ is shaped by a mind adapted to dealing with the challenges our ancestors faced.
• Cosmides and Tooby propose the idea of a human mind that is not a blank slate, but a mind that is composed of specialised cognitive modules (mental mechanisms that have evolved to solve specific problems related to survival). Therefore, the ‘self’ would be shaped by these modules, which would be activated in specific contexts such as social interactions, mate selection, and/or risk assessment.
• The ‘self’ is highly adaptable to the cooperative social context, being influenced by norms, trust, and the need for reciprocity to maximise its survival and reproductive success. As a result, these skills and the need for trust are fundamental aspects of psychology and stand out in the development of the ‘self.’

 

Postmodern Psychology (1970s/1980s-...) - this branch was directly influenced by philosophers Kenneth Gergen and Michel Foucault (mentioned above). Postmodern psychology came to question universal truths and the role of culture, language and subjectivity in the formation of identity and behaviour. Related works: ‘The Saturated Self: Dilemmas Of Identity in Contemporary Life’ and ‘The Hermeneutics of the Subject’.

• ‘I am not, I become - in relation to the other.’ Gergen suggests that the ‘self’ is not an inner essence or fixed identity, but rather a result of social interactions and language. He proposes that language creates reality, so the ‘self’ would be multiple, relational and formed through the cultural and historical contexts in which we live.
• Foucault deconstructs the idea of an ‘autonomous self,’ saying that the modern ‘self’ was produced through institutional discourses that normalised behaviours and subjectivities. Therefore, the ‘self’ would be an effect of power, which acts on our bodies and minds, transforming us into obedient, useful and ‘normal’ subjects.
• For both, the ‘self’ is not something static or universal, but something that can and should be rethought.

 

Very good! Now that we have some context, we are ready for what matters!

 

 Brain Plasticity

 

Historically, it was believed that our brains ‘set’ after childhood. However, studies have shown that adult brains also have adaptive capacity, just like children's brains. Research with monkeys has shown that after the amputation of a finger, the corresponding area of the brain was occupied by neurons responsible for other fingers, thus demonstrating neural reorganisation.

This reorganisation is called brain plasticity, or neuroplasticity, which is nothing more than the ability of our brain to reorganise itself in response to experiences. Our grey matter forms new neural connections in the same way that we change playlists on Spotify, and in addition, it is always learning new skills, recovering from injuries, adapting to behaviours and forgetting things. Neuroscientist David Eagleman says that ‘The plasticity of the brain is probably the most beautiful phenomenon in biology.’

Research by Michael Merzenich, Eleanor Maguire (yes, the one with the taxi drivers and their giant hippocampi — if you don't know what that is, do yourself a favour and read about it) and Norman Doidge (The Brain That Changes Itself) shows that the brain physically adapts to functions, demands and even trauma. If you understand what that means, then you must already realise how amazing it is. The same plasticity that allows us to overcome a stroke also allows us to internalise fake news as if it were absolute truth.

Plasticity also works in two ways (what a surprise!): it can heal or destroy, enlighten or dumb down. It all depends on the type of experience we expose ourselves to. What's more, it depends on the type of ‘self’ we want to sustain, believe in...

And this is where we have the Eureka effect! All those lines/shapes/ideas you read above... got it, right? If not, read it again more carefully.

 

 ‘I’ – A Construction of the Mind

 

As we saw at the beginning of this essay, the idea of a fixed and unchanging ‘I’ has been thoroughly questioned by various schools of thought. In the book ‘No Self, No Problem’, neuropsychologist Chris Niebauer argues that the left hemisphere of the brain acts as a kind of ‘interpreter,’ creating narratives to make sense of reality, which includes the construction of a personal identity.

This perspective is echoed in Eastern philosophical traditions, such as Buddhism, which has taught for millennia that the ‘self’ is an illusion. Modern neuroscience is beginning to corroborate these ideas, showing that our perception of identity is malleable and influenced by various internal and external factors.

This convergence between Eastern philosophy and neuroscience offers us profound insights. Practices such as meditation and mindfulness, which are extremely common in Eastern traditions, have been shown to have significant effects on brain structure and function, promoting greater self-awareness and reducing stress and anxiety (I recommend reading any work by Dr. Joe Dispensa).

These practices help us to disidentify ourselves from thoughts and emotions, allowing us to better understand the impermanence of the ‘self.’ By recognising the transient nature of our identity, we can cultivate a more open and resilient mind.

 

The Cult of Authenticity and Plasticity as a Form of Resistance

The fact that the ‘self’ has become a brand is nothing new. Today, our digital identity is carefully filtered, almost like an emotional Frankenstein created for a single purpose: to sell — whether it be a product, lifestyle, or validation.

The irony is that there has never been so much talk about ‘being authentic,’ but never has there been so much performance to appear to be something. Authenticity has become a costume; we are ‘trapped’ on a stage where the audience is ourselves, watching a show that, in most cases, we did not ask for.

And in the midst of all this, we still think we decide anything. We think we listen to the music we like because we have ‘good taste’... Let me tell you something, most of our tastes, beliefs and ideas are inherited from others, and algorithms do the rest.

Nowadays, artificial intelligence knows our desires better than we do. Our playlists know who we are before we even know who we want to be. This is all called ‘personalised experience,’ but what we are actually experiencing is a form of premium behavioural conditioning. We are not customers, we are the product being refined.

‘Where there is a will, there is a way.’ - Anglo-Saxon proverb.

The above proverb expresses very well how human beings — at least some of them — act in their environment. Therefore, before we start seeing the world only through the lens of criticism, it is good to talk a little about the capacity for reinvention as a revolutionary act. We can say that reinventing oneself may be the greatest act of freedom in an age of labels and niches.

Instead of seeking a ‘fixed self’, what if we accepted our constant metamorphosis?

 

Rituals & Psychedelics

 

I'm going to talk a little about my two experiences with Ayahuasca. I participated in these rituals in 2023 and 2024, within a short period of time. Both were enriching in completely different ways and helped me to better understand my own Genesis of the ‘Self’.

IMPORTANT: If you are considering participating in any ritual, I recommend that you DO YOUR OWN RESEARCH.

Do not participate in these rituals lightly. Be careful when choosing the location and the people who conduct these ceremonies, this is extremely important. Do not throw yourself into any place that offers Ayahuasca. Use common sense and do not use your head as a decoration! Let it be very clear that I am not a professional in this field, my research and knowledge on the subject are limited to my own interests. Therefore, do not use the following information as a guide, but rather as reading material.

For those who don't know, Ayahuasca is a drink made from a combination of two Amazonian plants: the Banisteriopsis caapi vine (Jagube) and the leaves of the Psychotria viridis shrub (Chacrona). The leaves of Chacrona have a high concentration of DMT, a powerful psychedelic compound (see research by psychiatrist Rick Strassman on the production and synthesis of this substance by the human body), while the vine Jagube has a high concentration of MAO inhibitors (a substance that regulates DMT in the human body), which allow DMT to act on the central nervous system, because without the vine, DMT would be quickly degraded by our body.

The medicine acts on our body especially in areas such as the prefrontal cortex, amygdala (not the one in the throat!) and the hippocampus, thus affecting perception, memory, emotions and sense of identity.

The effects of Ayahuasca last an average of 4 to 6 hours and include visions, deep introspection, emotional release, feelings of transcendence and so-called ‘cleansing’, which is nothing more than crying, excessive sweating, vomiting and, in some cases, the person may even defecate (literally).

From a physiological point of view, Ayahuasca activates serotonin receptors (a neurotransmitter that is released in the body after activities that generate pleasure, such as sex, for example), thus promoting altered states of consciousness - the so-called experiences and visions - which ‘resemble’ very vivid dreams and/or mystical experiences.

In traditional rituals and modern therapies, Ayahuasca has been used to treat trauma, depression, anxiety and also to catalyse experiences of ‘self-expansion’, ego dissolution and spiritual reconnection.

It is important to mention that these ancestral practices have been used for centuries by indigenous peoples in spiritual and healing rituals. But, like good meddlers, the ‘pale faces’ (us and the mainstream) decided to bring this into the pop culture of fast-food spirituality, which means that Ayahuasca rituals have gained more and more fame and followers. What's more, they have become portals to self-knowledge, emotional healing and transcendent experiences.

But here's a warning - with all the love and clarity I can muster: Ayahuasca is not dangerous in itself, but rather our contemporary obsession with ‘finding ourselves’ as if the ‘self’ were a sacred stone lost in some inner cave. The anxious search for authenticity can turn into an endless race - where one jumps from retreat to retreat, from ritual to ritual, attempt after attempt to decipher who one ‘really is’ while ignoring, for example, unresolved family relationships.

Reframing one's identity is always valid—necessary, I would say. But when it becomes a spiritual performance or an elegant escape from reality, the risk is to exchange an inflated ego for an ‘enlightened’ ego, even more full of itself.

Yes, Ayahuasca can offer visions, confrontations with forgotten traumas and the so-called ‘dissolution of the ego’, where the subject feels part of the whole, of the cosmos, of the forest, of the deafening sound of music, of the drum... in short, of everything except ‘themselves’.

But let's face it...

We must take into account that I had a question in my mind and that led me to participate in the rituals. I wanted to know who I was (hahaha, yes...). So, I decided to participate in the rituals as a way to get answers (what a surprise).

From these experiences, I developed my interpretations of the Genesis of my ‘selves’. Of course, it would be foolish of me to say that I arrived at a single answer. These experiences served as the basis for what ‘I’ have become and also for what I will become.

Below is a brief poetic - and slightly sentimental - account of these experiences, which may serve to illustrate how we shape our lives based on our perceptions, interpretations, beliefs, thoughts... May this serve as an example for you to analyse your ‘selves’ in a deeper, more comprehensive way, without wanting to put full stops where there are only ellipses.

 

Experience No. 1 - ‘The Fractal That Broke Me’

In my first ritual, I didn't have a beautiful vision. It was more like an aesthetic implosion of the mind.

I didn't see angels with harps and halos, or guides in white robes and feathers.

I saw fractals. Millions of them.

Whether my eyes were closed or open, it made no difference — I was a piece of those infinite structures.

No beginning. No end. No manual.

These fractals organised themselves into much larger patterns, and these patterns became dark eyes with multiple pupils. It was as if the Universe itself was silently staring at me.

Every time I tried to understand, to focus on what I saw, I felt a horrible urge to vomit, literally.

It was as if my body already knew what my mind refused to accept:

‘Trying to understand the Real through the lens of the ego is like trying to vomit the Infinite in small, digestible portions.’

I stopped trying to identify it. I stopped trying to understand it.

I let the images flow like a river. As if they didn't belong to me.

And that's when the ritual really began.

When it was over, I cried.

I cried like someone who had lost a home that never existed.

I cried for a whole week for something that, to this day, I can't even name.

I only know what happened.

I was dismantled. Fragmented. Torn apart.

Not by accident, but by an excess of reality.

What remained was:

‘The clear notion that the life we live is just one of many reflections of the same pattern that repeats itself. Trying to reduce this to logic is like trying to bottle the sea in a 2-litre bottle.’

 

Experience No. 2 - ‘The Tunnel of Selves’

In my second ritual, it was not a continuation of the dismantling.

I was led.

I walked through a tunnel that had no entrance or exit.

Its walls were screens. On these screens, the most varied scenes unfolded.

People in different worlds, times, bodies...

The certainty that does not come from the brain told me what I already knew: all these people were me.

I was someone in another time.

I was someone in another place.

I was someone without knowing that it was me — but I was, I was just being.

The strangest thing was that I did not cling to these selves.

I saw them. I felt them. I knew them. And I just kept walking.

The non-verbal lesson was:

‘You are not your story. You are what observes it as it happens.’

When it was over, I was hungry. But not for food, for life.

Energy bubbled inside me as if I had been born again in that second, but with a 12-dimensional body.

In the days that followed, the flashes returned. Unfamiliar but familiar faces.

Little by little, everything became... too normal.

It was as if the veil was getting used to me while I looked at the other side.

 

And you... what can this say about you?

These stories may not only be about me.

They may also be about you, about what you feel but haven't yet managed to put into words.

We live as if we were a ‘fixed self’ in a body with ID and CPF.

But deep down, we are a compilation of selves.

And what prevents us from recognising this is not a lack of spiritual access.

It's fear. Fear of collapse.

Fear of facing ourselves and seeing that all we are is an interpretation in flux, an entire reality slipping through our fingers.

But here's some information:

Reality is already flowing. It always has.

What changes is our willingness to keep going - without the need for a full stop, just accepting the ellipsis as part of our signature.

These experiences have taught me much more than I can put into words, but what I can verbalise is:

• We are forms that unfold, not truths carved out of marble.
  
• Our ‘I’ is just a temporary lens that changes according to trauma, affection, memory, experience or silence.
  
• When we stop trying to hold on to the Real, it gives us a dance.
  

 

The Lightness of Being Everybody and Nobody

 

Fernando Pessoa once said: ‘Being nobody is a luxury that few can afford.’ And perhaps this is something that can save us: the lightness of letting go and allowing ourselves to stop being a walking label.

To be okay with the impermanence of our identity is to make room for transformation and growth. To ignore this is to remain stuck in limiting patterns and suffer unnecessarily.

Self-knowledge is a matter of survival, not an option. But that's a topic for another article.

If you've made it this far, congratulations, there may be hope for you! So keep exploring the other articles here at UN4RT and don't forget to take a look at our UN4RTificial Blog. Comment, criticise, suggest topics and send aggressive feedback. Oh, and share it with the people who think they know each other just because they've had a free birth chart with AI.

Remember: In a world where automated behaviours are exploited and cultivated by brands, religions and governments, self-questioning has become essential. Although uncomfortable, it is only through this that we can achieve freedom. Resist. Ask questions. Doubt. And above all, don't believe everything you think.

 

‘Illusion crumbles when we question reality.’ - UN4RT

 

Get your sources, references and inspirations. The links go to UN4RTificial the Blog, where you'll find a mini-biography of the author and some of his works.

 

• Upanishads / Vedānta, Brihadaranyaka and Chandogya.
• Lao-Tze, Tao Te Ching.
• Confucius, The Analects.
• Siddharta Gautama (Buddha), Dhammapada and Sutras.
• Plato, The Phaedon, The Republic and The Banquet.
• Zhuangzi, Zhuangzi.
• Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics and Metaphysics.
• Vyasa, Bhagavad Gita.
• Steve Pressfield, acclaimed author of historical novels, who wrote the screenplay for the film The Legend of Bagger Vance mentioned in this essay. I recommend ‘Gates of Fire’, which tells the story of the Battle of Thermopylae from the point of view of a Spartan soldier, and for those who, like me, work with creativity and/or want to develop their discipline, I recommend ‘The War of Art’.
• Augustine of Hippo, Confessions.
• Adi Shankara, Brahma Sutra Bhashya.
• Padmasambhava, Bardo Thödol.
• Hildegarde von Bingen, Scivias.
• Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologica.
• Dōgen Zenji, Shōbōgenzō.
• Teresa d'Ávila, The Interior Castle.
• Michel de Montaigne, Essays.
• René Descartes, Meditations on First Philosophy.
• John Locke, An Essay Concerning Humane Understanding.
• David Hume, A Treatise of Human Nature.
• Immanuel Kant, Critique of Pure Reason.
• Mary Wollstonecraft, A Vindication of the Rights of Woman.
• Friedrich Nietzsche, Thus Spoke Zarathustra.
• Sigmund Freud, The Ego and the Id.
• Carl Gustav Jung, Psychological Types.
• John B. Watson, Behaviourism.
• Edmund Husserl, Logical Investigations.
• Martin Heidegger, Being and Time.
• Viktor Frankl, Man’s Search For Meaning.
• Jean-Paul Sartre, Being and Nothingness.
• Simone de Beauvoir, The Second Sex.
• Hannah Arendt, The Human Condition.
• Michel Foucault, History of Sexuality, Discipline and Punish and The Hermeneutics of the Subject.
• Gilles Deleuze, A Thousand Plateaus.
• Donna Haraway, A Cyborg Manifesto.
• bell hooks (Gloria Watkins), Ain’t I a Woman?
• Kurt Lewin, Field Theory in Social Science.
• Leon Festinger, A Theory Of Cognitive Dissonance.
• Alexander Luria, Fundamentals of Neuropsychology.
• Jean Piaget, The Psychology Of The Child.
• Lev Vygotsky, The Social Formation of the Mind.
• Murray Bowen, Family Therapy in Clinical Practice.
• Salvador Minuchin, Families and Family Therapy.
• Abraham Maslow, Motivation and Personality.
• Carl Rogers, On Becoming A Person.
• Albert Ellis, Feeling Better, Getting Better, Staying Better.
• Aaron Beck, Cognitive Therapy and Emocional Disorders.
• Susan Folkman / Richard Lazarus, Stress, Appraisal, and Coping.
• Leda Cosmides / John Tooby, The Adapted Mind: Evolutionary Psychology and Generation of Culture.
• Kenneth Gergen, The Saturated Self: Dilemmas Of Identity in Contemporary Life.
• Chris Niebauer, No Self, No Problem.
• David Eagleman, Articles on neuroplasticity.
• Michael Merzenich, Research on brain plasticity.
• Eleanor Maguire, Study on the hippocampus of taxi drivers.
• Norman Doidge, The Brain That Changes Itself.
• Joe Dispenza, Works on neuroscience and meditation.
• Rick Strassman, DMT: The Spirit Molecule.